The Soulscape: Rembrandt's Revolutionary Self-Portraits

How Rembrandt Achieved Eternity Through His Self-Portraits

(Rembrandt laughing, Rembrandt, 1628)

The British art historian Kenneth Clark (1903–1986) once said of Rembrandt’s self-portraits:

“[W]ith the possible exception of Van Gogh, [Rembrandt is] the only artist who has made the self-portrait a major means of artistic self-expression, and he is absolutely the one who has turned self-portraiture into an autobiography.”

When one thinks about self-portraits, they are often seen as exercises—experiments by the artist trying to capture a figure in a certain light or pose, etc. But with Rembrandt, as Clark stated, it’s a different case.

No artist in history has created this many self-portraits. It is estimated that about 10% of Rembrandt’s entire oeuvre was dedicated to self-portraits. That is at least 40 self-portraits, according to more conservative estimates, and possibly over 100, according to other estimates. This statistic is staggeringly unusual.

The first question that should come to mind is: “Why”? Why would Rembrandt create so many self-portraits? To understand the “why,” we must first understand the “what,” that is, what a self-portrait is. Then, we need to understand the “who"—who Rembrandt was—and only then can we approach the “why.” Once we understand the answer to the “why,” we gain a new perspective that puts these outstanding artworks in a different light. For your improved enjoyment, the next time at a museum.

Before beginning, two disclaimers:

1. A few names in art history are as sacred to me as Rembrandt. He is a giant whose art stands proudly next to art by Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio, Vermeer, and other comparable giants. Therefore, I must emphasise that I’m not a Rembrandt expert. The knowledge I present here is based on my understanding of this subject at the time of writing. I encourage you to explore this issue independently to see if you agree with me. Please let me know in the comments or via email if you notice any errors.

2. In this article, 'soul' refers to the spiritual elements that constitute a person's essence—those aspects that make one uniquely who they are. This perspective aligns with the way the ancient Greeks viewed the soul, focusing on human essence without invoking any mystical or supernatural implications. Such a viewpoint allows us to appreciate the depth of human experience and emotion that Rembrandt captured in his art.

Now, without further ado, let us begin by understanding and differentiating between portraits and self-portraits.

Regular Portraits

(Charles IV of Spain and His Family, Francisco Goya, 1801)

On the surface, the difference between regular portraits and self-portraits is perfectly obvious: in a portrait, the painter paints a subject that sits before him, and in a self-portrait, the artist paints himself.

There’s more to it. Think about it. What are portraits about? Usually, the subject commissioned the artist to paint the picture for him so that he could hang it in his residence. A portrait is made to please a customer. It’s an artistic interpretation of the subject that stood before him.

In different periods in art history, there were various approaches to portraiture; for example, Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) was notorious for portraying members of the Spanish royal family, ugly. Hence, through his interpretation of the royal family, Goya also implicitly expressed his appraisal of them. Thus, a political layer was added to his portraits.

(Portrait of a Woman, Thomas Gainsborough, 1750)

On the other hand, Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788) made really beautiful portrayals of his subjects, but he was much more interested in painting landscapes; thus, he added beautiful landscapes behind his portraits.

Gainsborough and Goya are more modern examples of great portraiture. During Rembrandt's time, the common approach was to portray the subjects in a favourable light so that the customer would be pleased and perhaps even pay a little extra.

The Still Life of the Soul: Self-Portraits

(Still Life with Fruit, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1881)

In self-portraits, the notion of serving a customer is discarded. The painter is alone, and self-portraits are rarely commissioned. This is particularly true for Rembrandt, who often created these works without expecting payment.

So, in a sense, a self-portrait is similar to a still-life painting. It’s just the artist with his subjects. It isn’t about politics like with Goya, and it isn’t about the artist’s fascination with a different genre, like with Gainsborough. It’s only the artist’s assessment of himself.

This quote from the French Impressionist Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919) about why he loves making still life could also apply to self-portraits:

"It gives my brain a rest, painting flowers. I don't feel the same tension as when I have a model in front of me. When I paint flowers, I use colors and try out values boldly without worrying about wasting a canvas. I wouldn't dare to do it with a figure; I'd be afraid of spoiling the whole thing." [1]

(For more about still life, see this article.)

Usually, artists make only a handful of self-portraits. Predominantly, artists created self-portraits for the same reason we take selfies today. To simply record oneself, usually for historical purposes.

Additionally, it was for exploring a figure without having a client or a poser in front of them. But when an artist makes dozens upon dozens of self-portraits, which is something unprecedented in the entirety of art history, we must assume that there is something unusual going on that’s worth exploring.

Let us begin with a bit of background. This added context will explain why Rembrandt made so many self-portraits, help us see them differently, and help us appreciate them for their full meaning.

On Rembrandt’s Life

(Self-Portrait, Rembrandt, 1652)

Rembrandt’s life was full of hardships. He experienced significant personal and financial turmoil throughout his life. Despite achieving early success and acclaim in Amsterdam, his inclination for an extravagant lifestyle led to severe financial difficulties. He suffered profound personal losses, including the deaths of his beloved wife Saskia and three of their four children at young ages. These tragedies deeply impacted Rembrandt, both emotionally and financially. By 1656, Rembrandt's excessive spending forced him into bankruptcy, leading to a public auction of his house and many of his possessions.

Despite all these hardships, Rembrandt still had happy periods when he was most prolific. The most inspiring aspect of his life story is that he continued to create great art throughout his life, even in the darkest of times. Thus, his self-portraits became his autobiography. Each one represents his inner state during that time. Nonetheless, Rembrandt’s earlier self-portraits were a bit more conventional in their application.

Rembrandt’s Use of Self-Portraits for Experimentation

(Self-Portrait Leaning on a Stone Sill, Rembrandt, 1639)

Rembrandt was a particularly innovative painter who kept experimenting with new subjects and techniques. So naturally, he used the most immediately available subject—himself—to test some of these techniques and different painting methods, such as etchings.

In the above, Rembrandt uses the format of an etching to test a new pose, inspired by the famous portrait “A Man with a Quilted Sleeve” by the Italian Old Master Titian (1488/90–1576). So here, the self-portrait embodies a traditional usage of the genre: experimentation.

Of course, like almost any other painter of his day, Rembrandt took advantage of his immediately available body to try out new poses that he wished to recreate on a few of his subjects in his commissioned work. It could also be the case that he thought this Titian composition was so interesting that he had to try it out for himself.

Rembrandt Capturing His Soul

(Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar, Rembrandt, 1659)

By the end of his life, Rembrandt’s popularity faded into obscurity. He got fewer and fewer commissions. This is when he made more and more self-portraits. This time, not only as the most personal form of self-expression but also out of necessity.

I think this 1659 self-portrait really captures that. Let’s take a deeper dive:

In an undefined setting, just like most of his masterpieces, the master sits surrounded by dark shades of brown. This man used to be the greatest and most well-known artist in his nation. He used to have a long waiting list of rich merchants and aristocrats eager to have their portraits made by him. Now, he doesn't have a single commission.

Virtually nobody wants Rembrandt to paint them anymore. What's only left for him now is to paint himself. This portrait is not another generic self-portrait. It's a self-portrait of the artist's inner suffering soul—a picture of his sorrowful state of being, like a brain x-ray, that shows the physical effects of his mental state.

His lips are tightly shut. This is no Mona Lisa-like smirk but a straightforward gaze of sadness. He doesn’t try to hide it. He looks at us directly in the eyes, almost begging for our recognition.

You can see that he is still eager to paint and work—he hasn't given up. His look isn't a look for mercy but a look of a person who knows what it's like to be at the top, and now he's at the bottom. He knows it's possible to change; after all, he started from scratch. Maybe he has another shot, he contemplates.

The brown and black colours represent how he feels inside. His hands are wrapping each other, static. He is a shell of his past glory. His attire is respectable and orderly, showing us that he is still the same Rembrandt. But what is an artist without subjects to paint? He is still alive and wants to continue making more art, but in a sense, he is already dead.

The Sublime Soulscape

(Self-Portrait, Rembrandt, 1658)

When you have the chance to witness one of Rembrandt’s self-portraits, think for yourself about that man, what he has gone through, and how great of a master he really was despite everything.

Art is the most personal thing one can create; it comes straight out of the artist’s sense of life, his implicit view of the world—his estimation of life on earth. His art sheds light on how he sees the world in a concretized form—that is, a painting.

Nothing can be more introspective than one’s portrayal of himself. And that is what I find so powerful about Rembrandt's self-portraits. They are about introspection, about Rembrandt’s strong familiarity with himself. He is candid. He isn’t faking it. He shows us the real Rembrandt, in his darkest of times and also in his happier moments—it’s like reading his journal.

Thus, Rembrandt achieved the most intimate and personal series of paintings in the entirety of art history. This is Rembrandt’s life project.

Many of Rembrandt’s greatest paintings took him more than a year to complete. This is a project that spanned his entire life. Through his self-portraits, he achieved the greatest of achievements—eternity.

Eternity, because he captured all elements of his soul at all times. Thus, he continues to live through his art.

His art became inseparable from himself. Rembrandt’s life wasn’t particularly successful, especially not towards the end, but through his art, he lives on. He managed to become one of the most appreciated artists in history. And through his self-portraits, he is there, looking at us, the viewers, and seeing how he has finally become appreciated.

Finally, Rembrandt got his sought-after recognition. Even more than 350 years after his death, he remains one of the most widely recognised great artists. That is eternal glory. That is the power of Rembrandt’s self-portraits.

Calling these works merely 'self-portraits' does not do them justice. Clearly, they were not created solely for experimental or historical purposes. The evidence for that can be found in the sheer number of such paintings he created and in their technical and emotional depth.

Rembrandt created a new genre of art: the soulscape. He transcended normal self-portraits by not only capturing himself superficially but also his soul, which adds another dimension to his art.

In his Soulscapes, Rembrandt discusses universal issues, such as human vulnerability (which he exhibits most wonderfully in the 1659 example I showed above) and man's struggles to achieve his values and aspirations in the face of his inevitable death.

Since he is the only one who can see his own soul and no one else's, the artist himself can only be the subject of the Soulscape.

The abstract settings of his soulscapes add a layer of timelessness. We don’t see views of 17th-century Amsterdam behind him; we don’t see anything besides Rembrandt the man.

Rembrandt has managed to find the sublime in a seemingly banal and underrated art genre. Through his mastery of light and shadow and his heart-piercing honesty and candour, Rembrandt achieved immortality. And that’s why it’s a new genre, the soulscape.

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If you enjoyed this article, I highly recommend checking out my article on Van Gogh, who, like Rembrandt, had a uniquely personal approach to art. Check it out here.

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[1] “Renoir: His Life And Work”, Francois Fosca, p.196.